Refine your search

The results of your search are listed below alongside the search terms you entered on the previous page. You can refine your search by amending any of the parameters in the form and resubmitting it.

Select all Deselect all Add selection to lightbox
Large Small
Thumbnails per page
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Court Performance and Festive Parade in Honour of the Wedding of Emperor Leopold I with Margaret Theresa of Spain in December 1666', illustration by Francesco Sbarra (1611-1668), c. 1667, Florence. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Copper engraving of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, by Nicolas II de Larmessin (1632-1694), c. 1690. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Portrait medallions of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, his wife Eleonore Magdalene and his son King Joseph I, over a view of Augsburg. Copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Entry of Emperor Leopold I, his Wife Eleonore Magdalene and King Joseph I to the Augsburg Cathedral', copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Emperor Leopold's Wedding with Claudia Felicitas of Austria, Graz, 15 October 1673', copper engraving by Cornelis Meyssens and Johann Martin Lerch (1643-1693), c. 1673. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Emperor Leopold's Wedding with Margaret Theresa of Spain, 1666/1667', copper engraving, c. 1660s. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Copper engraving of Ferdinand II (1578-1637), 35th Holy Roman emperor, by Matthaus Merian the Elder (1593-1650), c. 1642.<br/><br/> Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Ferdinand III (1608-1657) was the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II. He became Archduke of Austria in 1621, King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand was appointed head of the Imperial Army in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, and was vital in the negotiation of the Peace of Prague in 1635, the same year he was elected King of Germany. When his father died in 1637, he succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor.<br/><br/> As emperor, Ferdinand wished for peace with France and Sweden, but the war would drag on for another 11 years, finally ending with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Composing of the Treaty of Munster with France and the Treaty of Osnabruck with Sweden, the Peace of Westphalia represented a major shift in the concept of sovereign nation-states and European power, especially in terms of national self-determination and non-interference. Ferdinand himself had in 1644 given the right for all rulers of German states to conduct their own foreign policy, which backfired on him and would contribute to the erosion of imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire.<br/><br/> After the Peace of Westphalia, Ferdinand was busy enforcing and carrying out the terms of the treaty as well as getting rid of foreign soldiery from German lands. He soon reneged on the terms of the treaty by interfering in Italy in 1656, sending an army to assist Spain against France. As he was concluding an alliance with Poland to check Swedish aggression, Ferdinand died in 1657.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519), the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky.<br/><br/> He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy.
Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519), the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky.<br/><br/> He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy.
Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519), the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky.<br/><br/> He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy.
Frederick III (1415-1493), also known as Frederick the Fat and Frederick the Peaceful, was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Habsburg dynasty. He became duke of Inner Austria in 1424 at the age of nine, but would not be awarded rule until 1435, with his younger brother Albert asserting his rights as co-ruler. By 1439, Frederick had become the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty.<br/><br/> Frederick was the cousin of late King Albert II, and was elected as King of Germany in 1440. He travelled to Italy in 1452 to receive his bride and be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. He was unsuccessful in being crowned King of Italy however, and was the last emperor to be crowned in Rome. Frederick was not able to gain control over Bohemia and Hungary, losing the Bohemian-Hungarian War and the Austrian-Hungarian War.<br/><br/> Frederick ultimately prevailed against his rivals through patience and cunning, outliving his opponents and then often inheriting their lands. He also gained lands and increased the influence of the Habsburgs through political marriages, giving rise to the saying 'Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry'. Frederick eventually died in 1493, aged 77, bleeding to death after having his infected left leg amputated.
Frederick III (1415-1493), also known as Frederick the Fat and Frederick the Peaceful, was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Habsburg dynasty. He became duke of Inner Austria in 1424 at the age of nine, but would not be awarded rule until 1435, with his younger brother Albert asserting his rights as co-ruler. By 1439, Frederick had become the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty.<br/><br/> Frederick died in 1493, aged 77, bleeding to death after having his infected left leg amputated.
Frederick III (1415-1493), also known as Frederick the Fat and Frederick the Peaceful, was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Habsburg dynasty. He became duke of Inner Austria in 1424 at the age of nine, but would not be awarded rule until 1435, with his younger brother Albert asserting his rights as co-ruler. By 1439, Frederick had become the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty.<br/><br/> Frederick died in 1493, aged 77, bleeding to death after having his infected left leg amputated.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
'King Sigismund in the Court Church of Lucerne, 1417', watercolour drawing from the <i>Luzerner Schilling</i> by Diebold Schilling the Younger (1460-1515), c. 1513.<br/><br/> Sigismund (1368-1437) was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. He led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431. Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433.
Sigismund (1368-1437), also known as Sigismund of Luxembourg, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. Sigismund was betrothed to Princess Mary, eldest daughter of King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland, marrying her in 1385 and becoming King of Hungary and Croatia in 1387.<br/><br/> Sigismund led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. The Crusade was a disaster and ended in defeat, Sigismund being imprisoned and deposed in 1401 upon his return to Hungary, though he would later regain the throne. He imprisoned his own brother, King Wenceslaus, in 1403, taking over rule of Bohemia. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431.<br/><br/> Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. He led multiple campaigns against the Turkish Ottoman Empire, all with little success, and founded the Order of the Dragon in 1408 with the sole goal of fighting the Turks. He also waged the Hussite Wars from 1419 to 1430. Sigismund died in 1437, the last of the Luxembourg dynasty.
Rupert (1352-1410), also known as Rupert of the Palatinate and Rupert the Gentle, was the son of Elector Palatine Rupert II and a distant relative of Emperor Louis IV. He succeeded his father as Elector Palatine in 1398, and was declared King of Germany in 1400 by his fellow prince-electors, deposing King Wenceslaus.<br/><br/> Rupert lacked a solid power base within the Holy Roman Empire, his rule contested by the House of Luxembourg, King Wenceslaus' house, who refused to recognise his dethronement but took no direct action against Rupert. He marched into Italy in 1401, hoping to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor, but his soldiers deserted him during wintertime, and he had to return to Germany in 1402, too poor to continue the campaign.<br/><br/> Rupert would not find recognition and success until Wenceslaus was arrested by his brother Sigismund later that year. Pope Boniface IX finally deigned to recognise his crowning in 1403. Even then, he still faced numerous conflicts and had to make various concessions to prevent himself from being overthrown. Rupert died in 1410.
Wenceslaus IV (1361-1419), also known as Wenceslaus of Bohemia and Wenceslaus the Idle, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and became King of Bohemia in 1363, aged only two. He was elected as King of Germany in 1376 by the actions of his father, who passed away in 1378, making Wenceslaus sole ruler of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire.
Wenceslaus IV (1361-1419), also known as Wenceslaus of Bohemia and Wenceslaus the Idle, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and became King of Bohemia in 1363, aged only two. He was elected as King of Germany in 1376 by the actions of his father, who passed away in 1378, making Wenceslaus sole ruler of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire.
Frederick III (1289-1330), also known as Frederick the Handsome and Frederick the Fair, was the second son of King Albert I, thereby making him part of the Habsburg dynasty. He was made Duke of Austria and Styria in 1298 alongside his brother Rudolph III, becoming sole ruler after his brother died in 1307. He was originally a close friend to his cousin Louis IV of Wittelsbach, but they became enemies later in life.<br/><br/> When Emperor Henry VIII died in 1313, Frederick became a candidate for the throne, alongside his cousin Louis. Frederick received four out of seven elector votes, but a second election the next day saw Louis IV elected with five votes. Both were quickly crowned and became engaged in a civil war to see who would become the sole king of the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick was on the verge of victory when he was decisvely beaten in 1322 and taken prisoner by Louis, who held him captive for three years.<br/><br/> Frederick eventually recognised Louis' legitimacy in 1325 and vowed to convice his younger brothers, who still refused to acknowledge Louis, to submit or else he would return himself to captivity. When he failed to convince his brother Leopold to surrender, he returned to Munich as Louis' prisoner, who was so impressed by Frederick's gesture that he freed him and made a new pact to rule the Empire jointly in 1325. Frederick would officially govern as King of Germany, while Louis was crowned Holy Roman emperor. Frederick withdrew from his regency in 1326, returning to rule only Austria and Styria, though he was still considered King of Germany till his death in 1330.
Frederick III (1289-1330), also known as Frederick the Handsome and Frederick the Fair, was the second son of King Albert I, thereby making him part of the Habsburg dynasty. He was made Duke of Austria and Styria in 1298 alongside his brother Rudolph III, becoming sole ruler after his brother died in 1307. He was originally a close friend to his cousin Louis IV of Wittelsbach, but they became enemies later in life.<br/><br/> When Emperor Henry VIII died in 1313, Frederick became a candidate for the throne, alongside his cousin Louis. Frederick received four out of seven elector votes, but a second election the next day saw Louis IV elected with five votes. Both were quickly crowned and became engaged in a civil war to see who would become the sole king of the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick was on the verge of victory when he was decisvely beaten in 1322 and taken prisoner by Louis, who held him captive for three years.<br/><br/> Frederick eventually recognised Louis' legitimacy in 1325 and vowed to convice his younger brothers, who still refused to acknowledge Louis, to submit or else he would return himself to captivity. When he failed to convince his brother Leopold to surrender, he returned to Munich as Louis' prisoner, who was so impressed by Frederick's gesture that he freed him and made a new pact to rule the Empire jointly in 1325. Frederick would officially govern as King of Germany, while Louis was crowned Holy Roman emperor. Frederick withdrew from his regency in 1326, returning to rule only Austria and Styria, though he was still considered King of Germany till his death in 1330.
Albert I (1255-1308), also known as Albert of Habsburg, was the eldest son of King Rudolf I, and was made landgrave of Swabia in 1273, looking over his father's possessions in Alsace. He was then made Duke of Austria and Styria in 1283, alongside his younger brother Rudolf II. When his father died without managing to secure Albert's election as successor, he was forced to recognise the sovereignty of the elected King Adolf of Nassau.<br/><br/> Albert did not abandon his hopes for the German crown however, biding his time and working with Adolf's enemies and former allies to eventually have him deposed in 1298, with Albert elected as king in his place. He fought and slew Adolf at the Battle of Gollheim when he refused to give up power.
Adolf of Germany (1255-1298), also known as Adolf of Nassau, was the son of Walram II, Count of Nassau, and succeeded his father in 1276. When King Rudolf I died in 1291 without managing to secure the election of his eldest son Albert, Adolf was chosen by the Elector College of imperial princes and bishops, thinking him easy to control and manipulate. He was elected as King of Germany in 1292.<br/><br/> Adolf immediately had to pay and make significant concessions to the electors and archbishops who had given him the crown. Adolf had negligible power and influence within his own empire, but he soon tried to break away from the yoke of the electors and bishops who had elected him, concluding pacts with their opponents and breaking promises made but making sure not to be accused of breaching any contracts signed.<br/><br/> The electors grew increasingly wary of Adolf's policies and moves, which were often not in line with their own interests. They eventually banded together and deposed Adolf, charging him with various crimes and of breaking promises made. Albert I, son of the late King Rudolf I, was elected as the new king in 1298, and killed Adolf in battle when the former king refused to give up his power. Adolf became the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire to be deposed without a papal excommunication first.
Adolf of Germany (1255-1298), also known as Adolf of Nassau, was the son of Walram II, Count of Nassau, and succeeded his father in 1276. When King Rudolf I died in 1291 without managing to secure the election of his eldest son Albert, Adolf was chosen by the Elector College of imperial princes and bishops, thinking him easy to control and manipulate. He was elected as King of Germany in 1292.<br/><br/> Adolf immediately had to pay and make significant concessions to the electors and archbishops who had given him the crown. Adolf had negligible power and influence within his own empire, but he soon tried to break away from the yoke of the electors and bishops who had elected him, concluding pacts with their opponents and breaking promises made but making sure not to be accused of breaching any contracts signed.<br/><br/> The electors grew increasingly wary of Adolf's policies and moves, which were often not in line with their own interests. They eventually banded together and deposed Adolf, charging him with various crimes and of breaking promises made. Albert I, son of the late King Rudolf I, was elected as the new king in 1298, and killed Adolf in battle when the former king refused to give up his power. Adolf became the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire to be deposed without a papal excommunication first.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also known as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also kown as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also kown as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Pope Benedict XIII (2 February 1649 – 21 February 1730), born Pietro Francesco Orsini and later called Vincenzo Maria Orsini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 29 May 1724 to his death in 1730.<br/><br/> A Dominican friar, Orsini focused on his religious responsibilities as bishop rather than on papal administration. Orsini's lack of political expertise led him to increasingly rely on an unscrupulous secretary (Cardinal Niccolò Coscia) whose financial abuses ruined the papal treasury, causing great damage to the Church in Rome.
Otto IV (1175-1218) was the third son of the rebellious Duke Henry the Lion, as well as being the nephew and foster son of King Richard Lionheart of England. He was born and raised in England by Richard, and therefore many consider him the first foreign king of Germany. When Emperor Henry VI died in 1197, some of the princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty elected Otto as anti-king in 1198.<br/><br/> Otto's election sparked a civil war between himself and Philip of Swabia, brother of Emperor Henry and true claimant to the crown of Germany. Otto's forces were initially victorious, but his situation eventually worsened and by 1207, Philip had all but won. His sudden murder a year later changed things considerably however, with Otto quickly becoming the recognised King of Germany, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor by 1209.
Albert I (1255-1308), also known as Albert of Habsburg, was the eldest son of King Rudolf I, and was made landgrave of Swabia in 1273, looking over his father's possessions in Alsace. He was then made Duke of Austria and Styria in 1283, alongside his younger brother Rudolf II. When his father died without managing to secure Albert's election as successor, he was forced to recognise the sovereignty of the elected King Adolf of Nassau.<br/><br/> Albert did not abandon his hopes for the German crown however, biding his time and working with Adolf's enemies and former allies to eventually have him deposed in 1298, with Albert elected as king in his place. He fought and slew Adolf at the Battle of Gollheim when he refused to give up power.
Albert I (1255-1308), also known as Albert of Habsburg, was the eldest son of King Rudolf I, and was made landgrave of Swabia in 1273, looking over his father's possessions in Alsace. He was then made Duke of Austria and Styria in 1283, alongside his younger brother Rudolf II. When his father died without managing to secure Albert's election as successor, he was forced to recognise the sovereignty of the elected King Adolf of Nassau.<br/><br/> Albert did not abandon his hopes for the German crown however, biding his time and working with Adolf's enemies and former allies to eventually have him deposed in 1298, with Albert elected as king in his place. He fought and slew Adolf at the Battle of Gollheim when he refused to give up power.
Adolf of Germany (1255-1298), also known as Adolf of Nassau, was the son of Walram II, Count of Nassau, and succeeded his father in 1276. When King Rudolf I died in 1291 without managing to secure the election of his eldest son Albert, Adolf was chosen by the Elector College of imperial princes and bishops, thinking him easy to control and manipulate. He was elected as King of Germany in 1292.<br/><br/> Adolf immediately had to pay and make significant concessions to the electors and archbishops who had given him the crown. Adolf had negligible power and influence within his own empire, but he soon tried to break away from the yoke of the electors and bishops who had elected him, concluding pacts with their opponents and breaking promises made but making sure not to be accused of breaching any contracts signed.<br/><br/> The electors grew increasingly wary of Adolf's policies and moves, which were often not in line with their own interests. They eventually banded together and deposed Adolf, charging him with various crimes and of breaking promises made. Albert I, son of the late King Rudolf I, was elected as the new king in 1298, and killed Adolf in battle when the former king refused to give up his power. Adolf became the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire to be deposed without a papal excommunication first.
Adolf of Germany (1255-1298), also known as Adolf of Nassau, was the son of Walram II, Count of Nassau, and succeeded his father in 1276. When King Rudolf I died in 1291 without managing to secure the election of his eldest son Albert, Adolf was chosen by the Elector College of imperial princes and bishops, thinking him easy to control and manipulate. He was elected as King of Germany in 1292.<br/><br/> Adolf immediately had to pay and make significant concessions to the electors and archbishops who had given him the crown. Adolf had negligible power and influence within his own empire, but he soon tried to break away from the yoke of the electors and bishops who had elected him, concluding pacts with their opponents and breaking promises made but making sure not to be accused of breaching any contracts signed.<br/><br/> The electors grew increasingly wary of Adolf's policies and moves, which were often not in line with their own interests. They eventually banded together and deposed Adolf, charging him with various crimes and of breaking promises made. Albert I, son of the late King Rudolf I, was elected as the new king in 1298, and killed Adolf in battle when the former king refused to give up his power. Adolf became the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire to be deposed without a papal excommunication first.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also known as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also known as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Henry of Germany (1211-1242) was the only son of Emperor Frederick II with his first wife Constance of Aragon, and elder brother to future king Conrad IV. Henry was crowned King of Sicily in 1212, so that Frederick could pursue his claim to the crown of Germany, as an agreement between Frederick and Pope Innocent III had specified that Germany and Sicily should not be united under one ruler.<br/><br/> When the Pope died in 1216, Frederick reassumed the title of King of Sicily a year later and made Henry the Duke of Swabia instead. Henry was crowned as King of Germany in 1222, co-ruling with his father. He began to fall out with his father, his brash treatment against the imperial princes angering his father, who feared their discontent and was reliant on their support. Henry was outlawed by his father in 1234, resulting in him revolting, but he was brought to heel and forced to submit to his father in 1235. A trial saw him dethroned and stripped of his titles and holdings, with the crown and titles going to his younger brother Conrad.<br/><br/> Henry was imprisoned in various places for the last years of his life, finally dying in 1242 after falling from his horse while being moved to another location. Henry is numbered only in parentheses as he did not exercise sole kingship, and so as to not confuse him with the later Emperor Henry VII.
Henry V (1081/1086-1125) was the son of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1099 was crowned King of Germany and his true successor in place of his older brother Conrad, who had rebelled against their father. Henry took an oath of non-interference in imperial matters while his father ruled, but he was persuaded by his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, forcing his father to abdicate in 1105 and making Henry sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
Philip (1177-1208), also known as Philip of Swabia, was the youngest son of Emperor Frederick I and younger brother of Emperor Henry VI. Philip was originally prepared for a life in the clergy, but he forsook his ecclesiastical calling in 1191 after travelling to Italy, and was made Duke of Tuscany in 1195, as well as becoming Duke of Swabia in 1196 after the death of his brother Conrad. He married Princess Irene Angelina, daughter of Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos in 1197.
Henry IV (1050-1106), son of Emperor Henry III, was crowned King of Germany in 1056 after his father's death, though his young age meant his mother ruled as regent in his stead. He was kidnapped in the Coup of Kaiserswerth in 1062, a conspiracy led by the Archbishop of Cologne Anno II, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire while supervising over Henry's education and training.<br/><br/> When Anno was absent from Germany for a period, Henry managed to wrest back control of the government, and spent much of his reign consolidating his imperial power. The Investiture Controversy occurred during his rule, one of the most significant conflicts between Church and state in mediaeval Europe. Several civil wars were also waged over his throne, in both Germany and Italy, and while launching a third punitive expdition into Italy in 1093, Henry's son Conrad turned against him, crowned as King of Italy by one of Henry's fiercest foes, Matilda of Tuscany.<br/><br/> Henry finally formally deposed Conrad in 1098 and named his younger son Henry V as his successor. However, Henry V later also turned on his father in 1104, encouraged by the pope who had once again excommunicated his father. He was imprisoned and forced to resign his crown, though he escaped in 1106 and began to amass considerable support to his name. He defeated his son, but died soon afterwards from an illness. Henry was one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century.
Henry II (974-1024), also known as Henry IV and Saint Henry, was the son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and great-grandson of King Henry I, therefore making him part of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty. Due to his father's rebellion against the two previous emperors, Henry was often in exile and became close with the Church. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, taking the name Henry IV.<br/><br/> As Henry was returning home to claim his lands however, Emperor Otto III died of fever with no heir to succeed him. Political chaos gripped the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry defeated several other claimants to become King of Germany in 1002, and King of Italy in 1004. He subsumed the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire, and fought a series of wars against Poland. He also led a series of expeditions into Italy to ensure Imperial dominance against secessionist forces and the Byzantine Empire. He was eventually crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1014.<br/><br/> Henry II's rule was centralised, power consolidated in his hands through personal and political ties with the Catholic Church, which would lead to his canonisation a century later in 1146, the only German monarch to become a saint. Henry eventually died in 1024, leaving no children behind and ending the Ottonian dynasty.
Henry II (974-1024), also known as Henry IV and Saint Henry, was the son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and great-grandson of King Henry I, therefore making him part of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty. Due to his father's rebellion against the two previous emperors, Henry was often in exile and became close with the Church. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, taking the name Henry IV.<br/><br/> As Henry was returning home to claim his lands however, Emperor Otto III died of fever with no heir to succeed him. Political chaos gripped the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry defeated several other claimants to become King of Germany in 1002, and King of Italy in 1004. He subsumed the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire, and fought a series of wars against Poland. He also led a series of expeditions into Italy to ensure Imperial dominance against secessionist forces and the Byzantine Empire. He was eventually crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1014.<br/><br/> Henry II's rule was centralised, power consolidated in his hands through personal and political ties with the Catholic Church, which would lead to his canonisation a century later in 1146, the only German monarch to become a saint. Henry eventually died in 1024, leaving no children behind and ending the Ottonian dynasty.
Henry II (974-1024), also known as Henry IV and Saint Henry, was the son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and great-grandson of King Henry I, therefore making him part of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty. Due to his father's rebellion against the two previous emperors, Henry was often in exile and became close with the Church. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, taking the name Henry IV.<br/><br/> As Henry was returning home to claim his lands however, Emperor Otto III died of fever with no heir to succeed him. Political chaos gripped the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry defeated several other claimants to become King of Germany in 1002, and King of Italy in 1004. He subsumed the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire, and fought a series of wars against Poland. He also led a series of expeditions into Italy to ensure Imperial dominance against secessionist forces and the Byzantine Empire. He was eventually crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1014.<br/><br/> Henry II's rule was centralised, power consolidated in his hands through personal and political ties with the Catholic Church, which would lead to his canonisation a century later in 1146, the only German monarch to become a saint. Henry eventually died in 1024, leaving no children behind and ending the Ottonian dynasty.
Otto III (980-1002) was the only son of Emperor Otto II and Empress Theophanu. Otto became King of Germany at the age of three in 983, after his father's death, but his young age meant that various regents ruled in his name. Initially his mother, Empress Theophanu served as regent for her son until her death in 991. His grandmother, Dowager Empress Adelaide of Italy served as regent until 994, when Otto was finally eligible to rule.<br/><br/> In 996, Otto marched to Italy and claimed the titles of Holy Roman Emperor and King of Italy for himself, as well as to reestablish Imperial control over the city of Rome, which had revolted. He quickly put down the rebellion and installed his own cousin as the new pope, but soon had to return when the papacy rebelled again, reinstalling his cousin and executing the traitors. His actions strengthened Imperial control over the Catholic Church.<br/><br/> Otto improved the Holy Roman Empire's relations with Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, extending the influence of Christianity into Eastern Europe. While he was returning to Rome in 1001, another rebellion by the Roman aristocracy occurred, forcing him to flee the city. He died of a sudden fever a year later while marching back to reclaim the city, leaving no clear heir to succeed him and throwing the Empire into political crisis once more.
Henry II (974-1024), also known as Henry IV and Saint Henry, was the son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and great-grandson of King Henry I, therefore making him part of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty. Due to his father's rebellion against the two previous emperors, Henry was often in exile and became close with the Church. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, taking the name Henry IV.<br/><br/> As Henry was returning home to claim his lands however, Emperor Otto III died of fever with no heir to succeed him. Political chaos gripped the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry defeated several other claimants to become King of Germany in 1002, and King of Italy in 1004. He subsumed the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire, and fought a series of wars against Poland. He also led a series of expeditions into Italy to ensure Imperial dominance against secessionist forces and the Byzantine Empire. He was eventually crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1014.<br/><br/> Henry II's rule was centralised, power consolidated in his hands through personal and political ties with the Catholic Church, which would lead to his canonisation a century later in 1146, the only German monarch to become a saint. Henry eventually died in 1024, leaving no children behind and ending the Ottonian dynasty.
Henry II (974-1024), also known as Henry IV and Saint Henry, was the son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and great-grandson of King Henry I, therefore making him part of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty. Due to his father's rebellion against the two previous emperors, Henry was often in exile and became close with the Church. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, taking the name Henry IV.<br/><br/> As Henry was returning home to claim his lands however, Emperor Otto III died of fever with no heir to succeed him. Political chaos gripped the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry defeated several other claimants to become King of Germany in 1002, and King of Italy in 1004. He subsumed the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire, and fought a series of wars against Poland. He also led a series of expeditions into Italy to ensure Imperial dominance against secessionist forces and the Byzantine Empire. He was eventually crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1014.<br/><br/> Henry II's rule was centralised, power consolidated in his hands through personal and political ties with the Catholic Church, which would lead to his canonisation a century later in 1146, the only German monarch to become a saint. Henry eventually died in 1024, leaving no children behind and ending the Ottonian dynasty.
Maximilian I (1459-1519) was the son of Emperor Frederick III, and was married to Mary of Burgundy in 1477, daughter of Duke Charles the Bold, ruling the substantial Burgundian domains through his wife and their children when she died in 1482. He was elected King of Germany in 1486 at his father's initiative, ruling together until his father's death in 1493. Maximilian then became sole ruler and was crowned Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's first actions were to reconquer large swathes of Austria that had been occupied by Hungary. He fought during the Italian Wars, joining the Holy League against the French. He also had to deal with the Swiss rebelling in 1499, and was forced to sign a peace treaty that granted the Swiss Confederacy independence from the Holy Roman Empire, losing the Austrian territories in modern-day Switzerland. In 1508, Maximilian ended the centuries-old custom that the Holy Roman emperor had to be crowned by the pope, taking the title of 'Elected Roman emperor'.<br/><br/> Maximilian fell from his horse in 1501, which badly damaged his leg and would cause him pain for the rest of his life. He was also said to be morbidly depressed, and from 1514 onwards would travel everywhere with his coffin. He died in Wels, Upper Austria, in 1519, and was succeeded by his grandson Charles V. Maximilian's legacy was expanding the influence of the Habsburg dynasty, and helping to establish a branch of the dynasty in Spain, allowing Charles to hold the thrones of both Castile and Aragon.
Maximilian I (1459-1519) was the son of Emperor Frederick III, and was married to Mary of Burgundy in 1477, daughter of Duke Charles the Bold, ruling the substantial Burgundian domains through his wife and their children when she died in 1482. He was elected King of Germany in 1486 at his father's initiative, ruling together until his father's death in 1493. Maximilian then became sole ruler and was crowned Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's first actions were to reconquer large swathes of Austria that had been occupied by Hungary. He fought during the Italian Wars, joining the Holy League against the French. He also had to deal with the Swiss rebelling in 1499, and was forced to sign a peace treaty that granted the Swiss Confederacy independence from the Holy Roman Empire, losing the Austrian territories in modern-day Switzerland. In 1508, Maximilian ended the centuries-old custom that the Holy Roman emperor had to be crowned by the pope, taking the title of 'Elected Roman emperor'.<br/><br/> Maximilian fell from his horse in 1501, which badly damaged his leg and would cause him pain for the rest of his life. He was also said to be morbidly depressed, and from 1514 onwards would travel everywhere with his coffin. He died in Wels, Upper Austria, in 1519, and was succeeded by his grandson Charles V. Maximilian's legacy was expanding the influence of the Habsburg dynasty, and helping to establish a branch of the dynasty in Spain, allowing Charles to hold the thrones of both Castile and Aragon.
Adolf of Germany (1255 - 1298), also known as Adolf of Nassau, was the son of Walram II, Count of Nassau, and succeeded his father in 1276. When King Rudolf I died in 1291 without managing to secure the election of his eldest son Albert, Adolf was chosen by the Elector College of imperial princes and bishops, thinking him easy to control and manipulate. He was elected as King of Germany in 1292.<br/><br/> Adolf immediately had to pay and make significant concessions to the electors and archbishops who had given him the crown. Adolf had negligible power and influence within his own empire, but he soon tried to break away from the yoke of the electors and bishops who had elected him, concluding pacts with their opponents and breaking promises made but making sure not to be accused of breaching any contracts signed.<br/><br/> The electors grew increasingly wary of Adolf's policies and moves, which were often not in line with their own interests. They eventually banded together and deposed Adolf, charging him with various crimes and of breaking promises made. Albert I, son of the late King Rudolf I, was elected as the new king in 1298, and killed Adolf in battle when the former king refused to give up his power. Adolf became the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire to be deposed without a papal excommunication first.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also known as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564), 31st Holy Roman emperor, by Barthel Beham (1502-1540), c. 1531.<br/><br/> Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519), the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky.<br/><br/> He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy.
Henry IV (1050-1106), son of Emperor Henry III, was crowned King of Germany in 1056 after his father's death, though his young age meant his mother ruled as regent in his stead. He was kidnapped in the Coup of Kaiserswerth in 1062, a conspiracy led by the Archbishop of Cologne Anno II, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire while supervising over Henry's education and training.<br/><br/> When Anno was absent from Germany for a period, Henry managed to wrest back control of the government, and spent much of his reign consolidating his imperial power. The Investiture Controversy occurred during his rule, one of the most significant conflicts between Church and state in mediaeval Europe. Several civil wars were also waged over his throne, in both Germany and Italy, and while launching a third punitive expdition into Italy in 1093, Henry's son Conrad turned against him, crowned as King of Italy by one of Henry's fiercest foes, Matilda of Tuscany.<br/><br/> Henry finally formally deposed Conrad in 1098 and named his younger son Henry V as his successor. However, Henry V later also turned on his father in 1104, encouraged by the pope who had once again excommunicated his father. He was imprisoned and forced to resign his crown, though he escaped in 1106 and began to amass considerable support to his name. He defeated his son, but died soon afterwards from an illness. Henry was one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century.
Detail of a portrait of a young Charles V (1500-1558), 30th Holy Roman emperor, oil on wood painting by Bernhard Strigel (1461-1528), c. 1516.<br/><br/> Charles V (24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558) was ruler of both the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and the Spanish Empire (as Charles I of Spain) from 1516, as well as of the lands of the former Duchy of Burgundy from 1506. He stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556.
Frederick III (1415-1493), also known as Frederick the Fat and Frederick the Peaceful, was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Habsburg dynasty. He became duke of Inner Austria in 1424 at the age of nine, but would not be awarded rule until 1435, with his younger brother Albert asserting his rights as co-ruler. By 1439, Frederick had become the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty.<br/><br/> Frederick was the cousin of late King Albert II, and was elected as King of Germany in 1440. He travelled to Italy in 1452 to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. He was unsuccessful in being crowned King of Italy however, and was the last emperor to be crowned in Rome.
Copper engraving of Maximilian II (1527-1576), 32nd Holy Roman emperor, by Emanuel van Meteren (1535-1612) and Simeon Ruytinck (-1621), c. 1614.<br/><br/> Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.
Manuscript painting of Henry V (1081/1086-1125), 19th Holy Roman emperor, being given an orb by Ruthard, Archbishop of Mainz, c. 1128.<br/><br/> Henry V (1081/1086-1125) was the son of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1099 was crowned as King of Germany and his true successor in place of his older brother Conrad, who had rebelled against their father.